Thursday, November 1, 2018

From Persuasion to Mobilization

Why did I become a philosopher of science instead of continuing a career in mathematics or seeking a job in industry? There are various reasons, but one was the culture of philosophical argumentation: our willingness to evaluate our own arguments by the highest intellectual standards, and to accept diverging viewpoints. A culture of intellectual tolerance and honesty that is so different from what we see from the Trump supporters and the neo-fascists in many European countries.

This week, I travelled to the biennal meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association in Seattle, the largest organization in my field. When I arrived at the conference venue, I noticed a large poster next to the registration desk; announcing a PSA initiative aimed at underrepresentation in philosophy of science. (You may have to zoom in to read it properly.)




This poster is noticeable for a variety of reasons. First of all, for its drastic language: women and other minorities are “drastically underrepresented”, “philosophy of science is one of the worst subfields” (boldfaced), “we [PSA members] need to be more proactive”.

For anybody who has attended a critical thinking class this looks like a classical is-ought fallacy. From observations about gender and race distribution it is concluded that something is wrong in the field. Then a sense of responsibility and the bad conscience are invoked. We, the PSA members, are responsible for this (“we are the worst”). Therefore, we need to do something.

Notably, it is not asked what the causes of the uneven gender and race distribution could be, and whether they are necessarily indicative of discrimination in the field (link in Dutch). For example, the faculty appointed in the 1980s and 1990s is still around and obviously, they distort the statistics towards the proportion of white men.

Then, is it surprising that many young Black scholars decide to work on social, political and African philosophy, given the experience they and their family members faced in their lives? Is it something bad (as the authors suggest)? Is it a reason to worry? After all, also gender distributions over different academic disciplines vary widely. Is it all about disciplinary culture? Or not rather about different interests? Is it outrageous to explain diverging interests between the genders by a combination of biological factors and social mechanisms that push boys and girls at an early age into different directions? The latter is perhaps the most promising explanation, but if it is true, change needs to come from society as a whole.

There are also other factors that contribute to the gender gap in my opnion: the problem of combining family and academic career, the lack of affordable childcare, the impossibility of making a part-time career. Women are more strongly affected by these factors than men and therefore more likely to decide against an academic career.

All of this are complex matters, of course, on which one can rationally disagree. But this is precisely the point. Just because the topic is so complex and delicate, it should not be condensed in a shaky three-line argument. It is saddening to see that the PSA engages in this form of political activism instead of opening a balanced discussion. The use of statistics for underscoring normative claims is common, but especially as philosophers of science, we should treat them with caution and consider various explanations for the numbers instead of pushing “the obvious” conclusion. For example, many philosophers of science completed their first degree in a STEM discipline where men are traditionally more numerous than women. The gender gap may thus also be a consequence of the typical career trajectories in philosophy of science.

So much for the epistemic basis. Then, the rhetorics. While the initiative itself can be a valuable thing, the chosen language is more about political mobilization than about intellectual persuasion. We, as PSA members, have to pay attention, to care, to do something. (And if you disagree, you are not one of us.) Instead of: please have a look at the evidence, consider various explanations, and if you also think this is a problem, talk to us. It is ironic that exactly the champions of diversity are so adamant on enforcing their own political standpoint. 

On a related note, the registration package contains a leaflet distributed by the Women’s Causus.




While sexual harassment deserves indeed zero tolerance, the leaflet also suggests specifics actions to counter "biased behavior". Which may be just another word for voicing a different opinion. True, certain utterances may not always be pleasant to hear, especially when ill-supported by evidence, but should not we try to persuade the speaker instead of sanctioning him or her? (And is it so clear that he/she is mistaken? Shouldn't we first consider the argument before reacting?)

I do not know where this change of intellectual culture comes from, but it was different some years ago. Perhaps it is a contagion effect in a country governed by a president who only knows the good and the evil and whose rhetorics are mainly aimed at agitating and mobilizing the own political base.

I occasionally talk to political conservatives and Trump supporters who complain about lefty bias in academia, especially the humanities. So far I was proud to tell them that we are not the communist party. That most of us may have progressive views, but that we consider arguments for conservative positions as diligently as arguments that support our own views. That we carefully disentangle observations, implicit premises and conclusions. And that we are willing to tolerate viewpoints that we are in disagreement with.

What shall I respond to them now?

Monday, July 23, 2018

Das Ende der Toleranz

Mesut Özils Rücktritt aus der deutschen Nationalmannschaft ist Zeichen einer gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung, in der Toleranz und Respekt vor dem Anderen auf dem Rückzug sind.



2006, vor genau 12 Jahren, hat sich Deutschland anlässlich der Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft als tolerantes und weltoffenes Land präsentiert. Auf den Fanmeilen und in den Innenstädten zeigte sich ein Patriotismus, in dem Bekenntnis zur Heimat und auch ein wenig Stolz mitschwang, der aber wenig mit dem ausgrenzenden, aggressiven Nationalismus vergangener Zeiten zu tun hatte.

In den Folgejahren schien sich diese Öffnung auf die deutsche Gesellschaft als Ganzes auszudehnen. Einmal mehr war der Fußball Bannerträger: so wie Angehörige von Minderheiten begannen Führungspositionen in der Gesellschaft einnzunehmen, so wie die Deutschen lernten, sich auch und vor allem als Europäer zu sehen, so spielten in der Nationalmannschaft neben Lahm, Ballack und Neuer auf einmal Spieler mit den Namen Boateng, Khedira und Özil.

Einem dieser Spieler---Mesut Özil---wird nun von einer Mehrheit der Deutschen sowie von einem Gutteil der Fußball-Experten, Funktionäre und politischen Kommentatoren vorgeworfen, die Sache des eigenen Landes verraten zu haben und Werte zu befördern, die mit denen der Bundesrepublik nicht verträglich sind. Anlass der Debatte: Fotos, auf denen Özil mit dem im Wahlkampf befindlichen türkischen Präsidenten Recep Tayyip Erdogan posiert.





Man muss diese Fotos nicht gut finden; im Gegenteil, ich halte sie für einen Fehler. Es ist aber auch klar, dass Özil sich nicht zu Werten bekannt hat, die den unseren diametral gegenüberstünden. Er kennt Erdogan seit langem und hat den Auftritt als Tribut an die türkische Herkunft seiner Familie bezeichnet. Diese Haltung ist sicher diskutabel, aber kein schwerwiegendes Fehlverhalten, das für eine Nationalmannschaftsnominierung ins Gewicht fallen kann.

Vor allem aber: auch wenn Özil naiv erscheint, wenn er das Treffen als unpolitisch einschätzt, so sollte man ihm das Recht auf eine eigene Meinung zukennen, und die Entscheidung sich mit Erdogan zu treffen akzeptieren. Eine offene Gesellschaft zeichnet sich dadurch aus, dass sie Widerspruch und Dissens aushalten kann. Selbst wenn Özil öffentlich Erdogans Politik gelobt hätte (was er niemals getan hat), so wäre diese Meinung zu respektieren---genauso wie ich keine Freundschaften aufkündige, weil besagte Freunde die AfD gewählt haben. Ich halte die Politiker der AfD für gefährliche Feinde unseres Gesellschaftsmodells; ihre Wähler sind es in der Mehrzahl nicht. Es gibt sicher auch Fußballprofis, die der AfD ihre Stimme geben; wenn einer dies zugäbe, wäre dies dennoch kein Grund ihn aus der Nationalmannschaft auszuschließen. Wir müssen als Mannschaft und als Gesellschaft in der Lage sein zusammenzuarbeiten, auch wenn wir uns in manchen Wertungen und Einschätzungen nicht einig sind. Diese Tugend der Toleranz ist aber gesellschaftsweit auf dem Rückzug.

In diesem Licht ist es erstaunlich, dass im modernen Fußball gerne mehr “Typen” gefordert werden. Spieler, die nicht nur das sagen, was ihnen der Manager vorgibt. Spieler, die zu einer kontroversen Aussage stehen und nicht beim ersten Gegenwind umkippen. Diese Forderung verkehrt sich jedoch in ihr Gegenteil, sobald das, was gesagt wird (Özils Rechtfertigung seines Verhaltens und seine Weigerung einen Fehler zu erkennen), nicht mit Volkes Erwartungshaltung (ein Gang nach Canossa) übereinkommt. Dann fallen Worte wie “uneinsichtig”, “starrköpfig”, “verblendet”. In Qualitätsmedien. Oder man spricht Özil direkt die Entscheidungsfähigkeit ab und stempelt ihn zu einer Marionette seiner Berater.

Deutschland hebt sich von der Türkei unter Erdogan dadurch ab, dass es zentrale bürgerliche Freiheiten---Meinungs-, Presse-, Versammlungsfreiheit, usw.---respektiert. Viele Deutsche sind aber unfähig unbequemen Mitbürgern jene Freiheit zuzugestehen. Dies Phänomen ist auch in anderen Bereichen offenbar. Man denke an Abtreibungsgegner, radikale Tierschützer oder Menschen, die Schiffe chartern um Migranten in Seenot zu retten (und damit nicht nur Leben retten, sondern auch Schleusern helfen). Allen Gruppen stehe ich kritisch gegenüber. Ihre Haltungen sind aber Ausdruck einer Gewissensprüfung sind und leiten sich aus tiefliegenden moralischen Beweggründen ab. (Dies gilt auch für viele Trägerinnen des Kopftuchs.) Sie beziehen ihre Positionen in der Regel nicht, weil sie es tun wollen, sondern weil sie es aus einem inneren Antrieb tun müssen. Eine Mehrheit der Deutschen weigert sich allerdings die entsprechende ethische Debatte anzugehen und qualifiziert Vertreter dieser Haltungen als “Gegner der Emanzipation”, “Spinner” oder “weltfremde Idealisten”, und “Helfer von Kriminellen”. Ausdrücke, die der Komplexität des moralischen Dilemmas nicht gerecht werden und vor allem eins ausdrücken: radikale Ablehnung des Anderen, dessen Sichtweisen uns herausfordern. So steht es also um die Toleranz im Herzen Europas.

Auch in anderer Hinsicht machen wir uns etwas vor. Mesut Özil galt bis zu diesem Sommer als ein Musterbeispiel gelungener Integration; er wurde mit Preisen überhäuft und engagiert sich in mehreren sozialen Projekten (wie die meisten Spitzenfußballer es tun). Anscheinend genügt ein umstrittenes Fotoshooting, um all dies ungeschehen zu machen, um ihn auf die Rolle des Deutschtürken zu reduzieren, dessen Loyalität in Zweifel steht und der nur Deutscher auf Bewährung ist. Loyalität und Identifikation kann man aber nur dann einfordern, wenn man einen Menschen nicht als Staatsbürger zweiter Klasse behandelt. Wenn man ihm jene unbedingte und unveräußerliche Zugehörigkeit zugesteht, auf deren Basis allein man Kritik üben kann. Gerade dies geschieht aber nur selten. Stattdessen sucht man nach Gründen, um diese Zugehörigkeit als verwirkt zu erklären und einen Verrat am eigenen Land zu konstruieren. Fotos mit Erdogan, das Nicht-Mitsingen der Nationalhymne (das bei Oliver Kahn und vielen anderen niemand gestört hat), oder einen verlorenen Zweikampf nach einem 50-Meter-Defensivsprint.

Ich will keine neue Rassismus-Debatte eröffnen---das Wort ist zu belastet. Wer aber denkt, dass die Debatte um Özils Verhalten farbenblind sei, bedenke Folgendes: Das Treffen des DFB-Ehrenspielführers Lothar Matthäus mit dem russischen Präsidenten Wladimir Putin war den Medien nur eine Randnotiz wert. Hochrangige CSU-Politiker und -Staatsminister können einen Viktor Orban, der das eigene Land zum autoritären Staat umbaut und vor der Verschwörung des jüdischen Kapitals warnt, als “Freund” hofieren und seinen politischen Kurs öffentlich loben. Diese Haltungen werden vielleicht kontrovers diskutiert, sie sind dem Wesen nach aber akzeptiert. Mesut Özil wird jedoch aus einer diskutablen Handlung---die letztlich seine Privatsache ist---und seiner Weigerung, hierfür Abbitte zu tun, ein Strick gedreht. Was man einem, sagen wir mal, Thomas Müller wohl kaum angetan hätte, wenn er neben Putin auf einem Foto gelächelt hätte. Dass Özil nach Monaten medialen Dauerbeschusses und halbgarer Solidaritätsadressen seiner Mitspieler und Chefs den Rücktritt wählt, dass sich in seiner (sehr aufschlussreichen) Erklärung Trotz in der Sache mit Verzweiflung über mangelnde Akzeptanz und Respekt mischt, kann niemand ernsthaft überraschen. Özil steht symptomatisch für viele Menschen in unserer Gesellschaft, die aufgrund ihrer Hautfarbe, kulturellen Gebräuche, religiöse oder politische Ansichten, oder schlichtweg ihrer Persönlichkeit nicht jene Akzeptanz erfahren, die den meisten selbstverständlich zuteil wird.

Ein Dutzend Jahre nach 2006 überwiegt bei vielen Deutschen anscheinend der Wunsch die Öffnung des Landes zurückzunehmen und Anerkennung allochthoner Mitbürger auf diejenigen zu beschränken, die im Gleichschritt mit Volkes Stimme marschieren. Eine demokratische und offene Gesellschaft bedeutet aber nicht Diktatur der Mehrheitsmeinung. Sie bedeutet Widerspruch und Dissens, ehrliche Debatte, sowie Toleranz für die Anderen. Wenn wir diese Toleranz aufgeben, verlieren wir mehr als einen großartigen Fußballspieler: wir verlieren jene Tugend, die unsere offene Gesellschaft vor denjenigen auszeichnet, über die wir uns gerne erheben. Wer sie bewahren will, sollte schnell gegensteuern.

Tuesday, May 22, 2018

Die italienische Gefahr. Eine Klarstellung.

Panik in Deutschland angesichts der neuen italienischen Regierung. Konservative Ökonomen sehen das Ende des Euro kommen und fordern Merkel auf endlich zu handeln. Die FDP, die selbst gerne kräftig die Steuern senkt (oder zumindest davon redet), stellt klar, dass es Zeit zum Sparen ist. Politiker der AfD schließlich schwadronieren von impertinenten Südländern, die ganz Europa und damit auch Deutschland in den Abgrund reißen.

Ein paar Anmerkungen, die aus der Ferne vielleicht nicht ganz ersichtlich sind. Zunächst einmal gibt es noch nicht mal einen Regierungsauftrag---was auch mit Zweifel an dem gefundenen Kompromisskandidaten (kaum politische Erfahrung, geschönter Lebenslauf) zu tun hat. Wer weiß, wie diese Komödie weitergeht und wie lange diese Regierung hält, wenn sie einmal zustandegekommen ist.

Zweitens haben hochfliegende Absichtserklärungen in der italienischen Politik die Halbwertzeit eines Treuebekenntnisses, das der Hamburger SV zum jeweils amtierenden Trainer ablegt. Dass (Wahl-)Versprechen gebrochen werden ist hier die Norm und nicht die Ausnahme. Oder wie Adenauer sagte: was schert mich mein Geschwätz von gestern. Insofern bleibt erst einmal abzuwarten, in welchem Maße der in vielen Punkten vage und inkonsistente Regierungsvertrag (contratto di governo) auch umgesetzt wird. "Leicht beieinander wohnen die Gedanken, doch hart im Raume stoßen sich die Sachen."---zu dieser Einsicht von Schillers Wallenstein ist noch jede italienische Regierung gelangt. Die Cinque Stelle, mit Abstand die größte Partei, aber auch die mit der geringsten Erfahrung und Kompetenz, sind bereits im Vorfeld in mehreren symbolträchtigen Punkten umgekippt (z.B. der geforderte Stopp der Bauarbeiten an der Zugverbindung Turin-Lyon).

Ich bin übrigens der erste, der zum Angriff auf das italienische politische System und die hiesige politische Klasse bläst. Drittens sollte man aber nicht vergessen, dass die sozialdemokratischen Regierungen der letzten Legislaturperiode 2013-2018 (Letta, Renzi, Gentiloni) in mancherlei Hinsicht eine vorbildliche, sowohl mutige als auch disziplinierte Politik der Reformen betrieben haben. Natürlich ging auch einiges schief, aber anders als in Deutschland hat man es immerhin probiert. Dass nun gerade auf der politischen Rechten eine Regierung in Grund und Boden geredet wird, die die eigenen Forderungen (auf Italien bezogen) gegen die "Systemparteien" umsetzen will, entbehrt nicht einer gewissen Ironie---falls man nicht von Heuchelei sprechen will. Ein Auszug aus dem Regierungsvertrag: Spitzensteuersatz von 20% für Unternehmen und Privathaushalte (FDP), weniger Migranten, Italiener zuerst, Annäherung an Putins Russland (AfD), Schluss mit der Rücksichtnahme auf europäische Partner, weniger Macht für Brüssel (beide).

Schließlich und endlich wäre die Wahl sicher anders ausgefallen, hätten die anderen 27 Länder Italien mit seinem Migrantenproblem nicht schulterzuckend alleine gelassen. Weder wurde die lange Seegrenze ausreichend gesichert, noch wurden die Ankömmlinge auch nur ansatzweise über die Mitgliedstaaten verteilt. Das Land ist total überlastet. Wer über Flüchtlinge in Deutschland klagt, sollte demnächst mal nach Rom reisen oder sich auf einer sizilianischen Plantage umsehen (Turin ist einigermaßen harmlos). Dass auch an und für sich vernünftige Wähler dann den Glauben an die eigene Regierung verlieren und sich den politischen Extremen anschließen, ist in gewisser Weise nachzuvollziehen. Gerade die schärfsten Kritiker der Italiener (auch außerhalb Deutschlands) sind diejenigen, die die Macht der EU an jeder Stelle einschränken wollen---der einzigen Institution mit dem Potenzial und dem Willen diese Probleme anzugehen und Lösungsansätze zu koordinieren. Lieber wurstelt jeder für sich in seinem Kleinwichtig-Land weiter und wundert sich, wenn es auf einmal vor der Haustür brennt.

Sunday, March 25, 2018

Why I Don't Like Empowerment Feminism


“Ein Gespenst geht herum in Europa---das Gespenst des Feminismus.” The topic of gender equality is lively discussed in politics, mainstream media (TV, newspapers) as well as on the social web (Facebook, blogs). The predominant version of feminism in these debates is different from traditional feminist positions aiming at equal (civil) rights and chances (voting, financial and sexual autonomy, education, and so on). The first line of argument is based on the observation that women often find themselves in an overtly or secretly sexist culture (“#MeToo”), and that this culture needs to be changed. I agree with the diagnosis and the general conclusion. The second argument is based on the observation that although women have, in Western societies, equal rights and chances as men, they are apparently still discriminated against: they earn less than men (the famous “gender pay gap”), and they are underrepresented in leading positions (“glass ceiling”, “gender bias”). As remedies to these perceived injustices, the feminists in question recommend quota for women in leading positions or similar affirmative action measures aiming at achieving equal power for men and women, as soon as possible. I would like to call this version of feminism “empowerment feminism” (EF). EF will be the target of my argument in the remainder.

Putting things a bit provocatively, I find the EF cause---unlike the #MeToo cause and initiatives against domestic violence etc.---illiberal, intellectually wanting, parochial, hypocrite, and unreasonably impatient. I will argue my case below and in the end, sketch an alternative form of feminism that is, in my view, more aligned with the needs and chances of women in society. I will take most examples from academia since it is an environment where EF is vigorously discussed (and endorsed) and I happen to know it well.

Illiberal (freedom vs. equality). Independent of whether or not there is genuine discrimination going on in academia, politics and business, a large part of the actual or perceived disparities is due to free choices. EFs have a hard time to accept the intrinsic tension between freedom and equality; they deny that disparities are acceptable if people choose to have it that way.

An example: people usually have to make important life choices in their late 20s or early 30s. Do they decide to put all weight behind their career, making long hours at the office? Or do they prefer to have a family and to spend time with their kids, perhaps working part-time in a decent position below the top level? What will, in the long run, make you happy? As a matter of fact, women choose the second option more often than men. This has partly biological and partly socio-cultural reasons. But in the end, each woman or each couple decides for themselves, and there is no reason why society should not accept the outcome.

In my experience, talented women who want to pursue a career in academia, business or politics can reach the top level as easily as men. The problems start when they want to have kids, especially when their partner is not enthusiastic about doing the major part of the household work. Then they tend to reconsider what really matters for them. Or they have to leave early from the office because there is nobody else to pick up the kids, and they miss the important informal meetings where alliances are forged, strategies are conceived and promotions are discussed. This is without doubt an important issue---but it is not only a gender issue, but an issue for anybody, man or woman, who wants to combine family and a professional career. More on this at the end.

We also observe that gender percentages vary widely across academic disciplines. There are lots of women in, say, developmental and social psychology, lots of men in, say, formal philosophy. Is this a problem? If yes, why so? As far as we know, men and women have similar cognitive capacities, but they tend, on average, to develop different (academic) interests. Why should we, as society, intervene and have more male social psychologists and more female philosophers of science? You often hear the word “diversity”, but this is rather a political slogan than an argument. The scientific literature does not indicate that a gender-mixed team of psychologists conducts better experiments than a predominantly male or female team. This is also to be expected because the real benefits of diversity lie in character traits that are only weakly correlated with gender, if at all (i.e., different ways of thinking). But this is something that the EF camp fails to acknowledge.

Lastly, a policy where formative events (e.g., summer schools) are accessible to women only, or where positions are reserved for female applicants, is in itself discriminating and at odds with the liberal ideal of a society. Everybody should be able to enhance their knowledge, and positions should be are assigned on the basis of merit rather than non-essential properties (gender, being a friend on the boss, etc.). We should be wary to undermine this liberal ideal for the sake of equality-related windowdressing.

Intellectually wanting. The evidence base for EF consists in studies or statistics that seem to suggest a systematic bias against women.  The argument usually runs like this (I take an example from academia): “Look, statistics show that only 10% of all full professors are women although they are 50% of the cohort of PhDs. This shows that discrimination is going on and that we must do something.” Similar arguments are put forward for arts (e.g., the Bechdel test for movies) and politics as well.

Unfortunately, almost no EF writer I have read takes the effort to look at the statistics in more detail. For the above case, the most trivial explanation is the scarcity of Full Professor positions, which are also seldom replaced due to their long tenure. So even in a perfectly gender-blind society, we could not expect to have an equal rate of men and women right now (though we will so in the future). Nonetheless, news headlines compare the rates of female professors across universities, female board members across companies, and so on. For whatever it is worth, in my own experience in academia, most superiors are happy to support ambitious and talented women, and to fill the higher ranks with them. I have seen no single case where a woman was discriminated against for gender-related reasons.

Studies in cognitive psychology have also often found that while men and women are equally intelligent on average, the variance of IQ for men is higher than for women. Supposing that intelligence is a relevant characteristic, it would then, ceteris paribus, be normal to expect slightly more men than women in top positions. Of course, the relevance of such results is up to debate, but it is characteristic that they are not even discussed or outrightly dismissed as probably biased. Perhaps because they don’t fit the desired conclusion.

Another example for dismissing alternative explanations is the notorious “gender pay gap” (where statistics are also often presented in a misleading way, e.g., by not correcting for level of position). What is at stake here is perhaps not discrimination against women. Sure, it could be that senior managers are slightly more inclined to fulfil the demands of a male subordinate, compared to a female subordinate. This is an empirical question, but even if the answer were positive, it could scarcely explain the amount of the pay gap. 

More plausible, and in line with evidence from other sources, is that women tend to be less assertive and demanding and more respectful in negotiations. The “gender pay gap” is in reality a pay gap between more and less cunning negotiatiors. Some women will be as successful as men, but gender is probably correlated with the relevant character traits. What needs to be changed are thus not gender-related issues, but a negotation system that punished employees for their modesty and acquiescence (e.g., by making all salaries public). And indeed, some expectations on women and girls to “behave nicely”. But this is something different than bias and discrimination.

Similarly, the underrepresentation of female main acts in Hollywood movies may have to do less with gender bias than with the following simple reasons:

(1) Many movie plots adapt novels, stories or plays which predominantly feature men, either because of the content (e.g., historical novels or fantasy novels such as “Lord of the Rings”), because of the time of writing (e.g., classical literature adaptations). The screenplay author can do little about this.

(2) Money. It seems that certain patterns sell to the audience and mainstream movies are, after all, commercial products. I don’t want to deny that Hollywood is a pretty sexist business, but some EF writers seem to mistake it for a charity institution. When movies with strong and courageous men and beautiful and caring women sell, it says more about society than about the movie business itself.

Parochial and hypocrite. Top positions in society are predominantly distributed among a specific social class: the daughters and sons of architects, lawyers, doctors and engineers. EF claims that there is a gender bias at work in this specific subclass of the population. This may well be the case, though its extent is probably not too large. However, almost nobody seems to ask the question: How can we make sure that middle and working class people can reach the top of society? How can we encourage the descendants of migrants to pursue a career in academics or politics? Usually, these people don’t know the implicit communication norms; they speak a different language, listen to different music, have different habits in their free time. 

There was a time when a saddle-maker was the widely respected first president of the Weimar Republic (Friedrich Ebert), but these times are gone. Nowadays, we give important jobs to somebody, with whom we would like to open a bottle of Barolo, go to the theater and talk about the latest trip to a Mediterreanean seaside resort. (I am certainly no exception here.) Whatever the effects of (implicit) gender bias are, they are certainly much less pronounced than the above effects, about which almost nobody seems to care.

My impression is, in a nutshell, that EF activists are not intellectually honest in their cause for economic and social empowerment, but rather parochial and centered around their own interests. If we assign resources to remove biases and to establish equality between different groups, they should not go to removing a minuscule gender bias, but to make sure that the above layers are well represented in leading positions, that the Rawlsian promise of “equal chances for everybody” is fulfilled. All arguments about role models, social justice, long-time benefits for society, and so on, apply there equally well, and the case is surely more urgent. But of course, white upper-class women (and men) with university degrees make themselves much better heard than sons and daughters of factory workers---especially if they have foreign and hard to pronounce names. It is fair enough to fight for its own cause, of course, but then one should just say so instead of occupying the high moral ground.

A concluding example: in the humanities, there are many young scholars from Eastern Europe, who are often highly talented, but have much tougher starting conditions as a result of the underfinanced academic system in their home countries. I have seen several summer schools in philosophy for women only, but not a single one for Eastern Europeans, although they are an obvious target group for a socially concerned academic policy. Such examples suggest that decision-makers at universities are concerned with what is politically fashionable, but not with social justice itself.

Intolerant. The ways quite some EF activists deal with dissenters in personal conversation and web discussion is notable. Denial of one of their premises or conclusions is met with rage and emotion. They have little tolerance for diverging views and see them as socially harmful and morally unacceptable. The idea that a different viewpoint could be interesting or relevant is, in spite of all emphasis on diversity, completely alien to them. Of course, there are laudable exceptions, but...

Even “serious” projects exhibit an astonishing degree of intolerance. For example, there is a pretty prominent watchdog website which observes the rates of female keynote speakers at philosophy conferences (https://feministphilosophers.wordpress.com/gendered-conference-campaign/). Obvious nonsense from a statistical point of view, since most events feature just three or four keynote speakers, and in some subdisciplines 80% of all potential invitees are men. In addition, women decline invitations more often than men (family reasons). In spite of claiming not to be in the “business of blaming conference organizers”, the website also lists, on its front page, conferences which have failed to comply with their demands, and who are thus continuing “harmful practices”. Such name-and-shame practices are more reminiscient of totalitarian states than of liberal Western societies, but they are not untypical of EF activists.

Unreasonably impatient. Resolving social disparities is always an endeavor that demands patience and that is unlikely to be finished in the short run. The reasons are usually deeply engrained in the DNA of society, and this takes time to change. 100 years ago, women did, in many countries, not have the right to vote, to possess private property, or to attend university. 50 years ago, they were still largely excluded from the workforce or could divorce less easily than men. Fortunately, these disparities have mainly disappeared nowadays. There may still be some male bastions to fall, but there is no reason to suspect that this will not happen in due time. Is it really worth to give up, say, the meritocratic principle in academia just to accelerate this process? EF activists and their political allies usually give a positive answer, followed by the remark "we have waited long enough". This impatience reminds me of a small child which starts crying and shouting unless it gets a candy.

Concluding on a constructive note, I would like to say that things can and should be done to improve women’s career prospects---and in the long run, to make gender distribution more balanced at the top level. I am thinking of a principal cause of the current disparity: the challenge of getting and raising kids while at the same time pursuing a career. This is usually more disruptive for women than for men. Large companies should be forced, or at least incentivized, to offer affordable childcare to their employees. Flexible working times should be encouraged, and working part-time in leading positions should be commonly accepted. Negotiation procedures and salary scales need to be transparent. Mentoring for young employees (of both sexes) needs to become more standard to make sure that nobody is excluded from relevant networks.

I think that adopting such measures would tackle the causes of gender disbalance, and that the disparities would slowly vanish. Such measures would also benefit a larger share of women in society---namely those that will never make it to the boardroom or the lecture hall. The proposals are also in agreement with the liberal principle of providing equal chances and opportunities without promising an equal outcome. What EF proposes, by contrast, is to cure the symptoms without treating the disease.